E-E-A-T · 109 cited studies
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Every claim on this site cites peer-reviewed research. Here's the library — every entry links to PubMed, journal DOI, or the original source. Spot a missing study or an error? research@sureshotfatloss.com.
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109 studies
- Moderate evidence2025
Ultra-processed or minimally processed diets following healthy dietary guidelines on cardiometabolic health (UPDATE trial)
Dicken SJ et al. · Nature Medicine
Crossover RCT: UPF diet matched to dietary guidelines still produced more weight gain than minimally processed diet.
Ultra-Processed FoodSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2024
Body composition and cardiometabolic effects of GLP-1 receptor agonists: changes in lean mass
Linge J et al. · Obesity Reviews
Across GLP-1 trials, ~25–40% of total weight lost on semaglutide is lean mass — meaningful sarcopenia risk.
- Moderate evidence2024
Ultra-processed food exposure and adverse health outcomes: umbrella review of epidemiological meta-analyses
Lane MM et al. · BMJ
Umbrella review across 32 health outcomes: convincing evidence for UPF link to cardiovascular mortality, T2D, common mental disorders.
Ultra-Processed FoodSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2024
Bone health after exercise alone, GLP-1 receptor agonist treatment, or combination treatment
Jensen SBK et al. · JAMA Network Open
GLP-1 monotherapy reduced bone mineral density at hip and spine; exercise prevented this loss.
- Strong evidence2024
Beta-cell function and remission of type 2 diabetes (5-year DiRECT extension)
Taylor R et al. · The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology
5-year DiRECT extension: T2D remission durable when weight loss maintained; relapse predicts beta-cell decline.
Insulin ResistanceSource ↗ - Strong evidence2024
Continuous Glucose Monitoring (Standards of Care)
American Diabetes Association · Diabetes Care
ADA: CGM is recommended for diabetes; emerging value in prediabetes for behavior change but not yet first-line.
Glucose VariabilitySource ↗ - Emerging2024
The Need for a New Definition of Hypoglycemia in People without Diabetes
Klonoff DC et al. · Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology
Many CGM 'lows' in non-diabetics are sensor noise or benign physiology — interpretation requires caution.
Glucose VariabilitySource ↗ - Moderate evidence2023
Ultra-processed foods and cardiometabolic health: public health policies to reduce consumption cannot wait
Touvier M et al. · BMJ
Editorial-review summary of UPF cardiometabolic evidence calling for policy action; useful as orientation reference.
Ultra-Processed FoodSource ↗ - Strong evidence2023
Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Obesity without Diabetes (SELECT)
Lincoff AM et al. · New England Journal of Medicine
SELECT trial: semaglutide reduced major adverse cardiovascular events by 20% in obese non-diabetic adults.
- Moderate evidence2023
International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete
Sims ST et al. · Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition
Female athletes need attention to RED-S risk, iron status, and protein timing across the menstrual cycle.
- Moderate evidence2023
Bone health management in midlife women
Papadakis GE et al. · BMJ
Midlife women lose ~1–2% bone density yearly across the menopause transition; resistance training and protein blunt loss.
- Strong evidence2022
Weight regain and cardiometabolic effects after withdrawal of semaglutide: the STEP 1 trial extension
Wilding JPH et al. · Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism
One year after discontinuation, two-thirds of lost weight and most cardiometabolic improvements regained.
GLP-1 DrugsSource ↗ - Strong evidence2022
Tirzepatide once weekly for the treatment of obesity (SURMOUNT-1)
Jastreboff AM et al. · New England Journal of Medicine
SURMOUNT-1: tirzepatide produced 20.9% mean weight loss at the highest dose over 72 weeks.
GLP-1 DrugsSource ↗ - Strong evidence2022
Two-year effects of semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity (STEP 5)
Garvey WT et al. · Nature Medicine
STEP 5: 15.2% mean weight loss sustained at 104 weeks with continued semaglutide treatment.
GLP-1 DrugsSource ↗ - Strong evidence2022
Calorie restriction with or without time-restricted eating in weight loss
Liu D et al. · New England Journal of Medicine
12-month RCT: TRE 8h+CR vs CR alone produced equivalent weight loss; window timing didn't add benefit.
FastingSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2022
Evaluating the association between low-density lipoprotein cholesterol reduction and relative and absolute effects of statin treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Byrne P et al. · JAMA Internal Medicine
Meta-analysis: absolute reduction in mortality from statins is small (~0.8%) and not strongly tied to LDL drop.
Heart DiseaseSource ↗ - Strong evidence2021
Once-weekly semaglutide in adults with overweight or obesity (STEP 1)
Wilding JPH et al. · New England Journal of Medicine
Pivotal STEP 1 trial: 14.9% mean body-weight reduction with semaglutide 2.4 mg over 68 weeks vs 2.4% placebo.
GLP-1 DrugsSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2021
Cardiometabolic Benefits of Intermittent Fasting
Varady KA et al. · Annual Review of Nutrition
Review of alternate-day and 5:2 fasting: 4–8% body-weight loss over 8–12 weeks with cardiometabolic improvement.
FastingSource ↗ - Strong evidence2021
Semaglutide 2.4 mg once a week in adults with overweight or obesity, and type 2 diabetes (STEP 2)
Davies M et al. · The Lancet
STEP 2: 9.6% body-weight reduction with semaglutide 2.4 mg in T2D over 68 weeks vs 3.4% placebo.
- Moderate evidence2020
Ultra-processed food consumption and risk of obesity: a prospective cohort study of UK Biobank
Rauber F et al. · European Journal of Nutrition
UK Biobank cohort (~22K adults): higher UPF intake associated with elevated obesity risk over 5-year follow-up.
Ultra-Processed FoodSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2020
Effects of Time-Restricted Eating on Weight Loss and Other Metabolic Parameters in Women and Men With Overweight and Obesity (TREAT)
Lowe DA et al. · JAMA Internal Medicine
TREAT trial: 16:8 TRE produced no greater weight loss than three-meal control; lean-mass loss was higher.
FastingSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2020
Reduction in saturated fat intake for cardiovascular disease (Cochrane systematic review)
Hooper L et al. · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
Cochrane review: cutting saturated fat reduces CV events ~17%; effect mainly through replacement with polyunsaturated fat.
Seed OilsSource ↗ - Contested2020
Saturated Fats and Health: A Reassessment and Proposal for Food-Based Recommendations
Astrup A et al. · Journal of the American College of Cardiology
Reassessment paper: total saturated-fat intake itself is not associated with CVD; food matrix and replacement food matter more.
- Strong evidence2020
Effects of continuous glucose monitoring on metrics of glycemic control in diabetes: a systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
Maiorino MI et al. · Diabetes Care
CGM reduces HbA1c by ~0.4% and increases time-in-range vs SMBG in diabetes management.
Glucose VariabilitySource ↗ - Strong evidence2019
Ultra-Processed Diets Cause Excess Calorie Intake and Weight Gain: An Inpatient Randomized Controlled Trial of Ad Libitum Food Intake
Hall KD et al. · Cell Metabolism
Inpatient RCT: ad-libitum UPF diet caused ~500 kcal/day surplus and 0.9 kg gain in 2 weeks vs matched whole-food diet.
Ultra-Processed FoodSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2019
Ultra-processed foods: what they are and how to identify them
Monteiro CA et al. · Public Health Nutrition
Defines the NOVA classification system used to identify ultra-processed foods across the literature.
Ultra-Processed FoodSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2019
Ultra-processed food intake and risk of cardiovascular disease: prospective cohort study (NutriNet-Santé)
Srour B et al. · BMJ
French cohort (~105K adults): each 10% UPF increase was associated with a 12% rise in cardiovascular disease risk.
Ultra-Processed FoodSource ↗ - Strong evidence2019
Resistance Training for Older Adults: Position Statement From the National Strength and Conditioning Association
Fragala MS et al. · Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
NSCA position: resistance training for older adults preserves strength, mobility, bone density, and metabolic health.
Exercise & StrengthSource ↗ - Strong evidence2019
Apolipoprotein B Particles and Cardiovascular Disease: A Narrative Review
Sniderman AD et al. · JAMA Cardiology
ApoB particle count is a more accurate marker of CV risk than LDL-C alone — every atherogenic particle has one ApoB.
Heart DiseaseSource ↗ - Strong evidence2018
Mechanisms of Insulin Action and Insulin Resistance
Petersen MC, Shulman GI · Physiological Reviews
Comprehensive review of intramyocellular and hepatic lipid as primary drivers of insulin resistance.
Insulin ResistanceSource ↗ - Strong evidence2018
Primary care-led weight management for remission of type 2 diabetes (DiRECT): an open-label, cluster-randomised trial
Lean MEJ et al. · The Lancet
DiRECT trial: 46% achieved T2D remission at 12 months via structured low-calorie weight-loss program.
Insulin ResistanceSource ↗ - Contested2018
Omega-6 vegetable oils as a driver of coronary heart disease: the oxidized linoleic acid hypothesis
DiNicolantonio JJ, O'Keefe JH · Open Heart
Hypothesis paper proposing oxidised linoleic-acid metabolites as the mechanistic driver of CHD — contested.
Seed OilsSource ↗ - Strong evidence2018
A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults
Morton RW et al. · British Journal of Sports Medicine
Meta-analysis: protein supplementation augments resistance-training muscle gains up to ~1.6 g/kg/day plateau.
Exercise & StrengthSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2018
Consumption of ultra-processed foods and cancer risk: results from NutriNet-Santé prospective cohort
Fiolet T et al. · BMJ
10% increase in UPF intake associated with 12% higher cancer risk in 105K-adult French cohort.
Ultra-Processed FoodSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2018
Early Time-Restricted Feeding Improves Insulin Sensitivity, Blood Pressure, and Oxidative Stress Even without Weight Loss
Sutton EF et al. · Cell Metabolism
Early 6h eating window improved insulin sensitivity, BP, and oxidative stress in prediabetic men with no weight change.
- Strong evidence2018
Recommendations from the international evidence-based guideline for the assessment and management of polycystic ovary syndrome
Teede HJ et al. · Human Reproduction
International evidence-based PCOS guideline: lifestyle (diet + exercise) is first-line; metformin and inositol have additional benefit.
- Strong evidence2018
Environment dominates over host genetics in shaping human gut microbiota
Rothschild D et al. · Nature
In 1,046 Israelis, environment (especially diet) explained gut microbiota composition far more than host genetics.
Gut MicrobiomeSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2018
Role of the gut microbiota in nutrition and health
Valdes AM et al. · BMJ
BMJ overview: dietary diversity and fibre support a more diverse gut microbiota and better cardiometabolic health.
Gut MicrobiomeSource ↗ - Strong evidence2018
Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet Supplemented with Extra-Virgin Olive Oil or Nuts (PREDIMED)
Estruch R et al. · New England Journal of Medicine
PREDIMED RCT: Mediterranean diet with olive oil or nuts reduced major CV events by ~30% in high-risk adults.
Heart DiseaseSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2018
Glucotypes reveal new patterns of glucose dysregulation
Hall H et al. · PLOS Biology
CGM in non-diabetics revealed three glucotypes (low/moderate/severe variability); 'normoglycemic' adults frequently spike.
Glucose VariabilitySource ↗ - Moderate evidence2018
Does stress influence sleep patterns, food intake, weight gain, abdominal obesity and weight loss interventions?
Geiker NRW et al. · Obesity Reviews
Review of stress as a moderator of weight-loss intervention success — high-stress participants drop out and regain more.
- Moderate evidence2017
Metabolic Effects of Intermittent Fasting
Patterson RE, Sears DD · Annual Review of Nutrition
Review of intermittent fasting and time-restricted eating: weight loss comparable to continuous restriction.
FastingSource ↗ - Contested2017
Associations of fats and carbohydrate intake with cardiovascular disease and mortality in 18 countries (PURE)
Dehghan M et al. · The Lancet
PURE study: high carbohydrate intake associated with higher mortality; high fat intake — including saturated — was not.
- Moderate evidence2017
Circadian Entrainment to the Natural Light-Dark Cycle across Seasons and the Weekend
Stothard ER et al. · Current Biology
Camping for 6 days realigned circadian phase by ~2 hours; modern indoor lighting delays sleep onset.
Sleep & CircadianSource ↗ - Strong evidence2017
Dose-response relationship between weekly resistance training volume and increases in muscle mass: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Schoenfeld BJ, Ogborn D, Krieger JW · Journal of Sports Sciences
Hypertrophy scales with weekly sets per muscle (≥10 weekly sets > <5); plateaus around 20 sets/week.
Exercise & StrengthSource ↗ - Strong evidence2017
Low-density lipoproteins cause atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease
Ference BA et al. · European Heart Journal
Mendelian-randomization + RCT consensus: LDL particles are causally linked to ASCVD in primary prevention.
Heart DiseaseSource ↗ - Strong evidence2016
Persistent metabolic adaptation 6 years after 'The Biggest Loser' competition
Fothergill E et al. · Obesity
RMR remained ~500 kcal/day below predicted six years after rapid weight loss — adaptation persists.
Metabolic AdaptationSource ↗ - Contested2016
Re-evaluation of the traditional diet-heart hypothesis: analysis of recovered data from Minnesota Coronary Experiment (1968-73)
Ramsden CE et al. · BMJ
Recovered Minnesota Coronary Experiment data: linoleic-acid swap lowered cholesterol but did not reduce mortality.
Seed OilsSource ↗ - Strong evidence2016
Sleep Duration and Quality: Impact on Lifestyle Behaviors and Cardiometabolic Health (AHA scientific statement)
St-Onge MP et al. · Circulation
AHA position: short sleep (<7 h) consistently associated with weight gain and worse cardiometabolic risk.
Sleep & CircadianSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2016
Perimenopause: From Research to Practice
Santoro N · Journal of Women's Health
Clinical review of the hormonal turbulence of perimenopause and its metabolic implications.
Women-SpecificSource ↗ - Strong evidence2016
The pathogenesis of insulin resistance: integrating signaling pathways and substrate flux
Samuel VT, Shulman GI · Journal of Clinical Investigation
Comprehensive mechanism review: ectopic lipid in liver and muscle drives insulin resistance via DAG-PKCε.
Insulin ResistanceSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2016
Isocaloric fructose restriction and metabolic improvement in children with obesity and metabolic syndrome
Lustig RH et al. · Obesity
Isocaloric fructose restriction in obese children improved fasting glucose, lipid panel, and DNL within 9 days.
Insulin ResistanceSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2016
A randomized pilot study comparing zero-calorie alternate-day fasting to daily caloric restriction
Catenacci VA et al. · Obesity
ADF and continuous CR produced equivalent weight loss; ADF retained more weight after 24 wks but had higher dropout.
FastingSource ↗ - Strong evidence2016
Constrained total energy expenditure and metabolic adaptation to physical activity in adult humans
Pontzer H et al. · Current Biology
Total energy expenditure plateaus despite increases in activity — supports the constrained-energy model.
- Strong evidence2016
Revised estimates for the number of human and bacteria cells in the body
Sender R, Fuchs S, Milo R · PLOS Biology
Revised estimate: bacteria-to-human-cell ratio is roughly 1:1, not 10:1 as long claimed.
Gut MicrobiomeSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2016
Diet-induced extinctions in the gut microbiota compound over generations
Sonnenburg ED et al. · Nature
Low-fibre diet induced microbial extinctions in mice that compounded across generations and were partly irreversible.
Gut MicrobiomeSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2016
Protein 'requirements' beyond the RDA: implications for optimizing health
Phillips SM, Chevalier S, Leidy HJ · Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism
RDA (0.8 g/kg) is a floor for nitrogen balance; optimal for ageing, body composition, satiety is 1.2–1.6 g/kg.
- Contested2016
Lack of an association or an inverse association between low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol and mortality in the elderly: a systematic review
Ravnskov U et al. · BMJ Open
Systematic review: LDL-C inversely associated with all-cause mortality in adults over 60 — challenges the LDL-causes-CHD model.
Heart DiseaseSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2015
Natural sleep and its seasonal variations in three pre-industrial societies
Yetish G et al. · Current Biology
Hadza, San and Tsimane sleep ~6.5 h/night — fewer hours than Westerners but better consolidation.
- Strong evidence2015
The role of protein in weight loss and maintenance
Leidy HJ et al. · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
Higher-protein diets (1.2–1.6 g/kg) increase satiety, preserve lean mass during deficit, and improve weight maintenance.
Protein LeverageSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2015
Personalized Nutrition by Prediction of Glycemic Responses
Zeevi D et al. · Cell
Glycemic response to identical foods varies 2–10× between individuals — predictable from microbiome + clinical inputs.
Glucose VariabilitySource ↗ - Moderate evidence2015
Daily stressors, past depression, and metabolic responses to high-fat meals: a novel path to obesity
Kiecolt-Glaser JK et al. · Biological Psychiatry
A day of stressors slowed metabolic clearance of a high-fat meal by ~104 kcal of equivalent expenditure.
Cortisol & StressSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2014
Metabolic adaptation to weight loss: implications for the athlete
Trexler ET, Smith-Ryan AE, Norton LE · Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition
Reviews mechanisms of metabolic adaptation in lean dieters and outlines countermeasures (diet breaks, refeeds, strength training).
Metabolic AdaptationSource ↗ - Contested2014
Association of dietary, circulating, and supplement fatty acids with coronary risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Chowdhury R et al. · Annals of Internal Medicine
Meta-analysis: no clear support for replacing saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat to reduce coronary risk.
- Strong evidence2014
Diet rapidly and reproducibly alters the human gut microbiome
David LA et al. · Nature
Animal-based vs plant-based diet shifted gut microbiota composition within 24–48 hours.
Gut MicrobiomeSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2013
Timing of food intake predicts weight loss effectiveness
Garaulet M et al. · International Journal of Obesity
Late lunch eaters lost ~25% less weight on identical-calorie programs than early eaters over 20 weeks.
Sleep & CircadianSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2013
Dietary composition in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review to inform evidence-based guidelines
Moran LJ et al. · Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics
PCOS dietary review: weight loss of 5–10% improves ovulation; macronutrient composition matters less than total weight loss.
Women-SpecificSource ↗ - Strong evidence2013
Adaptive thermogenesis with weight loss in humans
Müller MJ, Bosy-Westphal A · Obesity
Quantifies adaptive thermogenesis: ~5–10% drop in resting energy expenditure beyond what mass change predicts.
Metabolic AdaptationSource ↗ - Contested2013
Use of dietary linoleic acid for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease and death: evaluation of recovered data from the Sydney Diet Heart Study
Ramsden CE et al. · BMJ
Sydney Diet Heart Study reanalysis: replacing saturated fat with linoleic-rich seed oil increased all-cause mortality.
Seed OilsSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2013
Resistance training for diabetes prevention and therapy: experimental findings and molecular mechanisms
Strasser B, Pesta D · BioMed Research International
Resistance training improves insulin sensitivity ~30% via increased muscle mass and GLUT4 translocation.
- Moderate evidence2013
Gut Microbiota from Twins Discordant for Obesity Modulate Metabolism in Mice
Ridaura VK et al. · Science
Mice colonised with obese twin's microbiota became fatter than mice with lean twin's — diet-dependent.
Gut MicrobiomeSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2012
Hunter-gatherer energetics and human obesity
Pontzer H et al. · PLOS ONE
Hadza total energy expenditure no different from Western adults — diet, not exercise, drives obesity differential.
Ancestral DietSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2012
Resistance training is medicine: effects of strength training on health
Westcott WL · Current Sports Medicine Reports
Review of resistance training as primary intervention for sarcopenia, glycemic control and bone density.
Exercise & StrengthSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2012
Understanding weight gain at menopause
Davis SR et al. · Climacteric
Menopause is associated with central fat redistribution independent of total weight change.
Women-SpecificSource ↗ - Strong evidence2012
Adverse metabolic consequences in humans of prolonged sleep restriction combined with circadian disruption
Buxton OM et al. · Science Translational Medicine
3 weeks of sleep restriction + circadian disruption produced prediabetic-grade insulin resistance and lower metabolic rate.
- Strong evidence2012
Protein supplementation augments the adaptive response of skeletal muscle to resistance-type exercise training: a meta-analysis
Cermak NM et al. · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
Protein supplementation augments lean mass and strength gains from resistance training across diverse populations.
- Strong evidence2012
Effect of dietary protein content on weight gain, energy expenditure, and body composition during overeating
Bray GA et al. · JAMA
Inpatient overfeed: low-protein groups gained more fat and less lean mass than normal/high-protein at matched calories.
- Strong evidence2011
Quantification of the effect of energy imbalance on bodyweight
Hall KD et al. · The Lancet
Mathematical model of body-weight regulation that explains why simple calorie deficits underestimate plateau effects.
Metabolic AdaptationSource ↗ - Strong evidence2011
Reversal of type 2 diabetes: normalisation of beta cell function in association with decreased pancreas and liver triacylglycerol
Lim EL, Hollingsworth KG, Aribisala BS, Chen MJ, Mathers JC, Taylor R · Diabetologia
Newcastle study: very-low-calorie diet normalised fasting glucose and beta-cell function within 8 weeks.
Insulin ResistanceSource ↗ - Strong evidence2011
Dietary protein for athletes: from requirements to optimum adaptation
Phillips SM, Van Loon LJC · Journal of Sports Sciences
Recommends 1.2–2.0 g/kg protein for athletes; spreads protein across 3–4 meals to maximize MPS.
- Moderate evidence2011
Reproductive hormones and the menopause transition
Santoro N, Randolph JF · Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America
Detailed account of FSH, estradiol, progesterone fluctuations across the menopause transition.
Women-SpecificSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2011
Testing protein leverage in lean humans: a randomised controlled experimental study
Gosby AK et al. · PLOS ONE
RCT: dropping dietary protein from 15% to 10% drove a 12% increase in total energy intake — protein leverage in humans.
Protein LeverageSource ↗ - Strong evidence2010
Adaptive thermogenesis in humans
Rosenbaum M, Leibel RL · International Journal of Obesity
Foundational review of adaptive thermogenesis — energy expenditure declines disproportionately with weight loss and persists.
Metabolic AdaptationSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2010
Achieving hunter-gatherer fitness in the 21st century: back to the future
O'Keefe JH et al. · American Journal of Medicine
Recommends modeling activity on hunter-gatherer movement patterns: walking, intermittent intensity, recovery.
- Moderate evidence2010
Low calorie dieting increases cortisol
Tomiyama AJ et al. · Psychosomatic Medicine
3-week low-calorie diet alone raised cortisol; restraint and stress amplified the rise — relevant to repeat dieters.
- Strong evidence2009
Adverse metabolic and cardiovascular consequences of circadian misalignment
Scheer FAJL et al. · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Forced 12-hour circadian misalignment for 10 days produced postprandial hyperglycemia and inverted cortisol rhythm.
Sleep & CircadianSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2009
Long-term effects of a randomised controlled trial comparing high protein or high carbohydrate weight loss diets on testosterone, SHBG, and erectile and urinary tract function in PCOS
Moran LJ et al. · Clinical Endocrinology
PCOS: high-protein and high-carb hypocaloric diets produced equivalent weight loss and androgen reduction.
Women-SpecificSource ↗ - Strong evidence2008
Meta-analysis of short sleep duration and obesity in children and adults
Cappuccio FP et al. · Sleep
Meta-analysis: short sleep (<5 h) was associated with 55% higher obesity risk in adults across 30 studies.
Sleep & CircadianSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2007
The metabolic consequences of sleep deprivation
Knutson KL et al. · Sleep Medicine Reviews
Review of cross-sectional and lab evidence linking sleep loss to obesity, T2D risk, appetite dysregulation.
Sleep & CircadianSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2007
Metabolic endotoxemia initiates obesity and insulin resistance
Cani PD et al. · Diabetes
High-fat diet raised circulating LPS (endotoxemia), which drove insulin resistance and inflammation in mice.
- Moderate evidence2007
Stress, eating and the reward system
Adam TC, Epel ES · Physiology & Behavior
Chronic stress potentiates reward-system response to palatable food — biological substrate of 'stress eating'.
Cortisol & StressSource ↗ - Strong evidence2006
The underappreciated role of muscle in health and disease
Wolfe RR · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
Foundational review of muscle as the primary site of glucose disposal and amino-acid reservoir for metabolic health.
Exercise & StrengthSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2006
An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest
Turnbaugh PJ et al. · Nature
Obese mouse microbiota harvested ~2% more calories from identical food than lean controls.
Gut MicrobiomeSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2006
Activation of oxidative stress by acute glucose fluctuations compared with sustained chronic hyperglycemia
Monnier L et al. · JAMA
Glucose variability (spikes) generated more oxidative stress than equivalent sustained hyperglycemia.
Glucose VariabilitySource ↗ - Mechanism only2005
Origins and evolution of the Western diet: health implications for the 21st century
Cordain L et al. · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
Catalogues seven dietary changes from Paleolithic to modern diet associated with chronic-disease patterns.
Ancestral DietSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2005
Obesity: the protein leverage hypothesis
Simpson SJ, Raubenheimer D · Obesity Reviews
Hypothesis: humans defend an absolute protein intake; lower dietary protein concentration drives overeating of total energy.
Protein LeverageSource ↗ - Strong evidence2005
A high-protein diet induces sustained reductions in appetite, ad libitum caloric intake, and body weight despite compensatory changes in diurnal plasma leptin and ghrelin concentrations
Weigle DS et al. · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
Increasing protein from 15% to 30% of calories at constant carb produced spontaneous 441 kcal/day reduction.
Protein LeverageSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2005
Role of stress in the pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome
Rosmond R · Psychoneuroendocrinology
Reviews HPA-axis dysregulation as a unifying driver of insulin resistance, visceral adiposity, dyslipidaemia.
- Strong evidence2004
Use and abuse of HOMA modeling
Wallace TM, Levy JC, Matthews DR · Diabetes Care
Practical guide to HOMA-IR/HOMA-β interpretation — the calculator screening foundation.
Insulin ResistanceSource ↗ - Strong evidence2004
Brief communication: Sleep curtailment in healthy young men is associated with decreased leptin levels, elevated ghrelin levels, and increased hunger and appetite
Spiegel K et al. · Annals of Internal Medicine
Two nights of 4-hour sleep dropped leptin 18%, raised ghrelin 28%, increased hunger ratings 24% — appetite hormones flip in days.
Sleep & CircadianSource ↗ - Strong evidence2004
Diet induced thermogenesis
Westerterp KR · Nutrition & Metabolism
Protein TEF is 20–30% of intake — vs 5–10% for carb and 0–3% for fat. Direct caloric cost.
Protein LeverageSource ↗ - Moderate evidence2003
Postprandial hyperglycemia and cardiovascular disease
Ceriello A · Diabetes Care
Postprandial hyperglycemia is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular events beyond fasting glucose or A1c.
Glucose VariabilitySource ↗ - Moderate evidence2000
Stress and body shape: stress-induced cortisol secretion is consistently greater among women with central fat
Epel ES et al. · Psychosomatic Medicine
Women with high central adiposity showed exaggerated cortisol response to lab stress vs lower-fat peers.
- Moderate evidence2000
Obesity and cortisol
Björntorp P, Rosmond R · Nutrition
Reviews HPA-axis dysregulation as a driver of visceral adiposity and metabolic syndrome.
Cortisol & StressSource ↗ - Strong evidence1999
Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction (Lyon Diet Heart Study)
de Lorgeril M et al. · Circulation
Lyon Diet Heart Study: Mediterranean pattern reduced cardiac events ~70% vs prudent post-MI diet over 4 years.
Heart DiseaseSource ↗ - Mechanism only1998
Stress, stress-related disease, and emotional regulation
Sapolsky RM · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
Foundational mechanism: glucocorticoid signaling links chronic stress to insulin resistance and visceral adiposity.
Cortisol & StressSource ↗ - Mechanism only1994
Stroke in Papua New Guinea (Kitava study): the importance of cardiovascular risk factors in non-Westernized populations
Lindeberg S · Comparative Studies in Health Sciences and Anthropology
Kitava observational study: traditional Melanesian population had near-zero CVD on a starchy whole-food diet.
- Moderate evidence1992
Concerning the possibility of a nut
Castelli WP · Archives of Internal Medicine
Framingham observation: those with the lowest cholesterol diet ate the most fat — relationship is more complex than a single number.
Heart DiseaseSource ↗ - Mechanism only1985
Paleolithic nutrition: a consideration of its nature and current implications
Eaton SB, Konner M · New England Journal of Medicine
Foundational paper estimating macronutrient and micronutrient intake of Paleolithic humans.
Ancestral DietSource ↗
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Citations are reviewed and updated as new evidence emerges. Marked contested when the literature is genuinely mixed — mechanism only when supported by mechanism but lacking large RCTs.